Fuselage Construction
The fuselage is the primary structural body of an aircraft and serves as the central attachment point for major components such as the wings, empennage, landing gear, and powerplant. It provides space for passengers, cargo, flight controls, and aircraft systems while carrying and distributing loads encountered during flight and ground operations. Understanding fuselage construction methods is essential for comprehending aircraft structural design and maintenance practices.
In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the powerplant. In multiengine aircraft, the engines may be either in the fuselage, attached to the fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure. There are two general types of fuselage construction: truss and monocoque.
Truss Type
A truss is a rigid framework composed of members such as beams, struts, and bars designed to resist deformation under applied loads. The truss-framed fuselage is generally covered with fabric. The truss-type fuselage frame is usually constructed of steel tubing welded together in such a manner that all members of the truss can carry both tension and compression loads. [Figure 1]
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| Figure 1. A truss-type fuselage. A Warren truss uses mostly diagonal bracing |
In some aircraft, principally the light, single-engine models, truss fuselage frames may be constructed of aluminum alloy and may be riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross-bracing achieved by using solid rods or tubes.
Monocoque Type
The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the strength of the skin or covering to carry the primary loads. The design may be divided into three classes:
- Monocoque
- Semimonocoque
- Reinforced shell
Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of the three classes, but most modern aircraft are considered to be of semimonocoque type construction.
The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. [Figure 2]
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| Figure 2. An airframe using monocoque construction |
The heaviest of these structural members are located at intervals to carry concentrated loads and at points where fittings are used to attach other units such as wings, powerplants, and stabilizers. Since few internal bracing members are present, the skin must carry the primary stresses and keep the fuselage rigid. Thus, the biggest problem involved in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable limits.
Semimonocoque Type
To overcome the strength-to-weight limitations of monocoque construction, a modification known as semimonocoque construction was developed. It also consists of frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers as used in the monocoque design but, additionally, the skin is reinforced by longitudinal members called longerons. Longerons usually extend across several frame members and help the skin support primary bending loads. They are typically made of aluminum alloy and may be either a single-piece extrusion or a built-up assembly. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members called stringers.
Stringers are typically more numerous and lighter in weight than the longerons. They come in a variety of shapes and are usually made from single-piece aluminum alloy extrusions or formed aluminum. Stringers have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of the skin. Stringers and longerons work together to strengthen the fuselage and resist the tension, compression, and bending loads encountered during flight. [Figure 3]
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| Figure 3. The most common airframe construction is semimonocoque |
Other bracing between the longerons and stringers can also be used. Often referred to as web members, these additional support pieces may be installed vertically or diagonally. It must be noted that manufacturers use different nomenclature to describe structural members. For example, there is often little difference between some rings, frames, and formers. One manufacturer may call the same type of brace a ring or a frame. Manufacturer instructions and specifications for a specific aircraft are the best guides.
The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of alloys of aluminum and magnesium, although steel and titanium are sometimes found in high-temperature areas. Individually, not one of the aforementioned components is strong enough to carry the loads imposed during flight and landing. However, when combined, those components form a strong, rigid framework. This is accomplished with gussets, rivets, nuts and bolts, screws, and even friction stir welding. A gusset is a reinforcing plate or bracket used to strengthen structural joints. [Figure 4]
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| Figure 4. Gussets are used to increase strength |
To summarize, in semimonocoque fuselages, the strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and these, in turn, hold the stringers, braces, web members, etc. All are designed to be attached together and to the skin to achieve the full-strength benefits of semimonocoque design. It is important to recognize that the metal skin or covering carries part of the load. The fuselage skin thickness can vary with the load carried and the stresses sustained at a particular location.
The advantages of the semimonocoque fuselage are many. The bulkheads, frames, stringers, and longerons facilitate the design and construction of a streamlined fuselage that is both rigid and strong. Spreading loads among these structures and the skin means no single piece is failure critical. This means that a semimonocoque fuselage, because of its stressed-skin construction, may tolerate localized structural damage while retaining sufficient strength until repairs can be made.
Fuselages are generally constructed in two or more sections. On small aircraft, they are generally made in two or three sections, while larger aircraft may be made up of as many as six sections or more before being assembled.
Reinforced Shell Type
The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural members.
Pressurization
Many aircraft are pressurized. This means that air is pumped into the cabin after takeoff and a difference in pressure between the air inside the cabin and the air outside the cabin is established. This differential is regulated and maintained. In this manner, adequate cabin pressure is maintained so passengers can breathe normally and move about the cabin without supplemental oxygen at high altitudes.
Pressurization causes significant stress on the fuselage structure and adds to the complexity of design. In addition to withstanding the difference in pressure between the air inside and outside the cabin, cycling from unpressurized to pressurized and back again on each flight causes metal fatigue. To deal with these impacts and the other stresses of flight, nearly all pressurized aircraft are semimonocoque in design. Pressurized fuselage structures undergo extensive periodic inspections to ensure that any damage is discovered and repaired. Repeated weakness or failure in an area of structure may require that section of the fuselage be modified or redesigned.